One of the main challenges facing the Spanish Mediterranean basin is the scarcity of water resources, a critical factor for agricultural production in the region. Agriculture is a vital economic sector, dominated by irrigated crops such as vegetables and, currently, olive groves. The latter, traditionally rainfed, have been converted to irrigated crops due to the decrease in rainfall observed in recent decades. Both vegetables and olive groves require a constant and adequate water supply during their most demanding production phases, which intensifies the pressure on the limited water resources available in the area.
These irrigated crops are essential not only for food production but also for the local and national economy. For example, olive oil production in Andalusia is a fundamental pillar of the Mediterranean diet and represents a significant portion of Spain’s agri-food exports. In 2023, Spain exported 684,500 tons of olive oil, demonstrating the importance of this sector in international trade. The olive tree, although drought-resistant, has specific water requirements that are crucial for its development and production. Generally, olive trees require between 0.4 and 0.8 litres of water annually, depending on factors such as soil type, tree age, and climatic conditions. During critical periods, such as flowering and greening, water needs increase considerably, making adequate irrigation vital to ensure a quality harvest.
Water balance of Andalusia, Spain (2021-2050) (mm/day)
Furthermore, the quality of water used for irrigation is crucial. Water with high salinity or contaminants can negatively affect olive tree growth and the quality of the oil produced. Inadequate irrigation can lead to problems such as reduced yield and concentration of phenolic compounds, which are essential for the organoleptic properties of olive oil. Therefore, the use of quality water is not only vital for the health of the olive tree but also directly influences the quality of the final product, impacting the profitability of the crop.
However, the dependence of these crops on irrigation water poses various challenges for long-term sustainability, especially in the context of climate change that is exacerbating water scarcity. Efficient management of water resources thus becomes a priority to ensure the viability of olive oil production and other crops in the region.
The PRIMA NATMed project, coordinated by CARTIF, addresses water scarcity in the Mediterranean region through the implementation of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in existing water infrastructures. Its innovative approach, based on the development and implementation of “Full-Water Cycle-NbS”, aims to optimize water management and improve related ecosystem services, while providing environmental, social, and economic benefits to Mediterranean communities.
One of NATMed´s key initiatives is the implementation and improvement of reclaimed wastewater treatment and storage systems for reuse in agriculture. This strategy provides an alternative water source that not only helps conserve natural water sources by reducing the overexploitation of ecosystems and water resources, but also provides farmers with a reliable source of irrigation, especially in water-scarce regions. Furthermore, the use of reclaimed water supplies nutrients to crops such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and, consequently, decreases production costs, thus contributing to the economic and environmental sustainability of agriculture in the Mediterranean region.
An example of this strategy is the Spanish case study of the project located at the Center for New Water Technologies (CENTA) in Carrión de los Céspedes, Seville, where the combination of various artificial wetlands is being optimized with the aim of providing reclaimed water for irrigation of crops such as olive groves. These wetlands can be of different types, including:
Hybrid configuration: Vertical Subsurface Flow + Free Water Surface.
Floating helophyte wetland.
Aerated treatment wetland.
French vertical flow wetland
Center for New Water Technologies (CENTA) in Carrión de los Céspedes, Seville
Artificial wetlands are human-created ecosystems that emulate the natural water purification processes found in natural wetlands. These NbS leverage an intricate network of interactions between substrate, plants, and microorganisms to effectively purify wastewater. As water flows through the wetland, contaminants are removed through a series of complementary processes: suspended solids are trapped in the maze formed by the substrate and plant roots; organic matter is decomposed by a diverse community of microorganisms thriving in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions; nitrogen is absorbed by plants or transformed by specialized bacteria; phosphorus is captured by the substrate; and pathogens are neutralized by a combination of factors, including toxic substances produced by plant roots and the action of predatory microorganisms. This synergy of physical, chemical, and biological processes makes artificial wetlands an effective and sustainable solution for wastewater treatment.
Finally, the optimization of artificial wetlands developed in the NATMed project seeks to address the challenge of water scarcity in irrigated agriculture by providing alternative irrigation sources, which also reduce the need for chemical fertilizers, thus contributing to the environmental and economic sustainability of the region. As part of this approach, irrigation water quality parameters will be measured to ensure compliance with current regulations, in addition to analysing the nutrients provided to the soil, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, and their impact on crop production. A key aspect of the project is its potential for replicability in other locations to address the challenge of water scarcity in the Mediterranean region, which is being facilitated through engagement and training activities with relevant stakeholders in the area. These initiatives are fundamental to ensuring the long-term viability of agriculture in the region in the face of climate change and increasing water demand.
Lotus flower has the capacity of survive on difficult environments, such as pantanous areas, hence it is frecuently associated with the complex vital processes that human being should face.
Most technology centres have been told phrases like “tell me about it and I´ll tell you if it adapts to what I need“, “find me a grant and we´ll set up a project that adapts” or ” when you have developed it and it works, we´ll talk”. These types of phrases are nothing more than a demonstration of, in general, the low innovative culture that we have in our environment, and of the non-existent strategic business policies based on innovation.
Technology centres are expert agents in incremental innovations, who are beholden to the demands of the market and who aim to generate social and economic benefit in the innovation systems to which we belong. We are, therefore, fundamental agents for achieving prosperity in the regions, given that our mission is to use science, transform it into technological solutions and transfer it to the market so that it can be exploited and generate value.
“Technology centres are fundamental agents for achieving prosperity in the regions”
We need each agent in the innovation system to fulfil its role because if each agent operates freely, in a market of perfect competition, where the only variable that is perceived to be considered is price, inconsistencies and inefficiencies arise that in many cases aren´t perceived in the short term, but in all cases are suffereed in the long term. Thus, innovation ecosystems can become real crops of “de-technology” of “de-valuation” and ultimately of “de-innovation” if each agent is not clear about our function and sphere of action, if we don´t operate seeking role monopolies and if a common objective not pursued as an ecossytem by all the agents that participate in the ecosystem.
Without going into who came first, the chicken or the egg, there are several examples that demonstrate the relationship between the competitiveness and prosperity of regions and the existence of strongly rooted technology centres, with a clearly defined role and supported by the ecosystem:
These are ecosystems where innovation is economically and fiscally incentivised, and where there is a real culture of change for prosperity.
Ecosystems that have a clear commitment on the part of public administrations to innovation, piloting strategic projects based on technology, investing in basal funding for technology centres and with monopolies on the roles of each agent that achieve the efficiency of the ecosystem.
These are ecosystems with tax treatments that incentivise the generation of blue oceans in the long term and the purchase of technological innovation from their own agents in the short and medium term.
They are culturally advanced ecosystems that seek for technological independence and therefore autonomy in decision-making.
Ecosystems with mature technology and knowledge valorisation networks ready to exploit these assets.
Ecosystems that create own talent and attracts foreign talent.
Knowing, therefore, the environmental variables that affect the establishment of an adequate innovation ecosystem: sustainable and prosperous, it is the duty of all the agents that make up the innovation ecosystems to fight to achieve fertile innovation environments, well equipped with resources and innovative culture, which serve as water and fertiliser, and not swamps in which each agent has to become lotus flowers seeking survival in an environment in which we compete on prices and which distances us from seeking the prosperity of our own regions, which can only be achieved by contriuting value according to our role.
Innovate for you, innovate for me, innovate for us.
Do you want to know the tool before telling you more about it? Enter to the Beta version here
In 2022, the European Commission choosed 112 cities to participate in the”100 Climate-Neutral and Smart Cities by 2030″ initiative (27 european and 12 from partner countries). These cities would receive technical support from the Mission Cities platform run by the European NetZeroCities project, with the objective of acting as centres of experimentation and innovation to reach climate neutrality by 2030; as well as serving as model for other cities to reach the same goal by 2050.
Since the start of the project, NetZeroCities has supported the 112 cities selected as “Mission Cities”, which have participated in programmes such as the “Pilot Cities Programme” and the “Twinning Learning Programme”.
Cities clasification on NZC project
To formalise this sustainability objective, NetZeroCities project has supported the development of Climate City Contracts in the selected cities. These formalise an agreement between the city, its stakeholders (such as companies, civil organisations and citizens) and the European Commission; setting out clear and specific commitments for 2030 and 2050.
NetZeroCities context
Climate City Contract: a contract through climate neutrality
Climate City Contract (CCC) is an action plan that allows the municipality to define the actions and the public and private municipal actors involved in the development of actions aimed at achieving climate neutrality by 2030 and 2050. This process is iterative and allows for new commitments and periodic evaluation of the measures taken.
Climate City Contract Sections
This document establishes a comprehensive strategy divided into three main lines of intervention, the agreement of the parties called commitments, the strategy for climate neutrality called Action plan and the economic model that supports it, called Investmen plan.
To do, cities must formalise a common commitment among all stakeholders, identifying priority sectors, principles of climate justice and collaboration, and actors committed to the city´s climate goals. It then presents an action plan that assesses the strengths and gaps of existing policies, proposing a portfolio of coordinated interventions that includes an emissions inventory as a starting point and highlights the social benefits of the proposed actions, as well as providing conclusions for future updates of the plan. In this section, Solution Bundles play a crucial role in offering direct solutions to move towards climate neutrality and facilitate the necessary commitments and processes to achieve it in each city together with the stakeholders invovled. Finally, an investment plan is developed that organises public and private resources, analyses past and current investments, identifies barriers and needs, and develops policies to attract capital, mitigate financial risks and build capacity with the active participation of key stakeholders.
NetZeroCities. European Mission Cities
The tool: Solution Bundles
Concept and Description
From CARTIF, the team compound by Rosalía Simón, Ana Belén Gómez , Andrea Gabaldón, Carolina Pastor y Carla Rodríguez, has developed this tool to support cities in the development of their Climate City Contract. Solution Bundles provide combinations of enabling technologies and mechanisms that when implemented together maximise their impact, facilitating the selection of actions aimed at achieving climate neutrality. The aim is to facilitate the visualisation of a comprehensive and effective approach, improving acces to the NetZeroCities Information Repository and the understanding of innovative urban solutions.
In addition, Solution Bundles can be used as a canvas in the work of engaging local stakeholders to increase their participation; they act as an interactive canvas for workshops, facilitating the creation of resources or knowledge between municipalities and other stakeholders.
Packages of actions designed to mitigate climate change and achieve carbon neutrality in cities
The tool has four packages, which allow the selection of diverse technologies through interactive and simple diagrams; as well as presenting this information in relation to the scale of implementation (City, District and Building).
“E-Movility and electrification”: The included solutions on this package are focus on the production of renewable energy and the decarbonization of all sectors through electrification.
“Low-carbon energy via setor coupling”: This package focuses on connecting different sectors through energy systems, applying principles of circular economy and waste reuse.
“Reduction of energy & resources needs”: This package hosts passive solutions focused on reducing energy needs in the built environment, increasing the efficiency of resource and energy utilisation systems.
”Carbon capture, storage & removal”: This package focuses on reducing energy needs through carbon sinks, eliminating residual emissions and using Nature Based Solutions (NBS) to manage the city’s ecosystems and optimise carbon sequestration.
Development of the tool and implementation on the portal
Its development is being carried out in different phases, with the aim of implementing feedback from different users and cities. Initially, it will be focused on helping Mission Cities, but with the aim of supporting all cities in their process towards climate neutrality by 2050.
Currently, the tool is still under development and only two of the four packages are active; they are available on the project’s portal as beta version for Mission Cities.
How to use it?
Choose your approach: Beggin selecting the package you want to focus on: “E-Movility and electrification”, “Low-carbon energy via setor coupling”, “Reduction of energy & resources needs” y ”Carbon capture, storage & removal”.
Filtering options:You can then customise your view by checking or unchecking boxes to show or hide specific areas of the package. This feature helps you focus on the solutions most relevant to your objective, reducing the number of actions presented and making the process more efficient.
Explore solutions: The solutions shown are linked to factsheets in the NetZeroCities Information Repository, related scientific articles and case studies, covering various thematic areas. If you want more information about the technical solutions, you can access to the following link.
Connection to Enabling Mechanisms: At the top of the tool, you will find connections to other resources (Finance, Policy and Governance, and Capacity) for the selected package. These new resources provide information on how to improve the strategic framework where solutions are implemented.
Spain is well known for its Mediterranean climate, characterized by high temperatures and low precipitation, particularly during summer. These features attract many tourists every year that choose Spain as holiday destination to enjoy its sunny beaches, vibrant cultural experiences and outdoor activities. Unfortunately, this climate is not only perfect for tourism but also fosters conditions that can lead to the outbreak of wildfires. And guess what? The increasing heatwaves and prolonged dry spells, caused by climate change, aggravate the work of the firefighters who need more resources to extinguish the fires.
Spain’s Fiery Stats: Where do we stand?
In 2023, the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) ) estimated that around 91,000 ha of forest area were burnt. That’s like burning through the size of nearly 130,000 soccer fields! By using EFFIS data, it was possible to compare the surface of burnt area in several EU countries. The outcomes of this comparison are that, in 2023, Spain was the third country with most burnt area just after Greece (174,773 ha) and Italy (97984 ha). It is relevant to notice that Greece, Italy and Spain present similar climatic conditions, characterized by high temperatures and low precipitation.
Statistics from burned Spanish areas. Source: EFFIS
And here’s the kicker: in 2024, the flames have already gobbled up 37,000 hectares, putting Spain ahead of other Mediterranean countries. The recent Andújar wildfire in Jaén (Andalusia) alone scorched 835 ha of area that usually hosts an extensive variety of flora and fauna.
Hot zones: Where wildfires hit the hardest in Spain
Not all of Spain is equally flammable, but some regions are definitely more fire-prone. Andalusia frequently experiences wildfires, particularly in areas with dense forests and shrubland. Remember the Sierra Bermeja fire in 2021? It was one of the worst wildfires in years. Cataluña, especially near the Pyrenees, also faces frequent wildfires, like the intense blazes during the scorching summer of 2022. And let’s not forget Galicia in the northwest, where wildfires regularly sweep through rural and forested areas.
Source: Elordenmundial.com
What’s fuelling the flames?
Humans, of course! Whether it’s a careless camper, an arsonist, or a farmer burning fields, we’re often the ones lighting the match. But climate change effects are also major catalysts for wildfires. Rising temperatures, causing increased heat and dryness that make the vegetation more susceptible to ignition by reducing their moisture. Shifting precipitation patterns, which mean more drought frequency, making vegetation more prone to catch fire.
And don’t forget extreme weather events such as wild storms, that can produce lightings and thereby increasing the likelihood of natural ignition, while strong winds fan the flames, compromising the control of the fires, and making them spread.
The aftermath: What’s at stake?
When wildfires rage, the damage is not just environmental, it is economic and social, too. Forests and natural habitats are destroyed with the related loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, and increased carbon emissions is a direct consequence of wildfires on the environment. Economically, the destruction of homes, infrastructure, and agricultural lands hits communities hard. Tourism, a lifeline for many regions, can also be severely affected. And let’s not overlook the health risks. Wildfire smoke can affect vulnerable populations like the elderly and those with respiratory conditions, leading to respiratory illnesses and other health issues after a prolonged exposure.
Fighting fire with strategy and innovation
Battling wildfires is not just about putting out flames; it is about being smart before they even start. That means investing in research to understand fire behavior and the impacts of climate change, developing new firefighting technologies, and educating the civilians to increase public awareness on this matter.
The Spanish government is also stepping up with strategies and solutions to mitigate the risks of wildfires and adapt to the challenges posed by a changing climate that can worsen these risks like better land management practices (e.g. clearing vegetation and creation of firebreaks), reforestation with fire-resistant species, and enhancement of early warning systems. Moreover, the implementation of a well-organized firefighting system including brigades, aerial units and military units is essential to quickly control wildfires. Additionally, the European Union supports Spain through the European Civil Protection Pool, providing further resources to fight extensive wildfire.
CARTIF’s contributions to address fire risks in Spanish regions
RethinkAction, project led by CARTIF comprises the Almería province in Andalusia as one of its case studies. The project collects information on the area (e.g. historical and future values of climate variables), assesses the potential climate-related risks and creates risk maps. These maps provide useful insights on the risk of drought, heatwaves and storm in each municipality of the province and each vulnerable sector that can be exposed to these risks such as agriculture, tourism, water management and biodiversity.
Furthermore, CARTIF participates to the NEVERMORE project. This project includes the Region Murcia as case study. A climate-related risk assessment is performed also for this region and a map highlighting the most affected municipalities is produced. Such as the RethinkAction project, the NEVERMORE project provides relevant information not only on the most affected municipalities but also on the most vulnerable sectors involved. Knowing the municipalities with high probability to be affected by climate change is incredibly relevant for the prevention of fires, to identifying the missing resources that are necessary to contain possible outbreaks.
Refreshing your memory, in the previous blog “Talking about everything visible and invisible (I)” we briefly told you about the digital technologies and techniques used to inspect, document and analyze Cultural Heritage in the visible range (the one that our eyes capture). It is now time to tell you about the complementary technologies and techniques that work in other ranges where our eye does not see (the invisible), allowing us to know about composition, history and conservation needs. Here they are:
X-ray techniques: X-ray radiography and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging are helpful in examining the internal structures and material composition of cultural heritage objects. These methods aid uncover hidden layers and construction details that are vital for restoration and conservation efforts.
Source: rxpatrimonio.com
Infrared (IR) imaging: near-infrared (NIR) reflectography, infrared thermography, and infrared spectroscopy are used to analyse pigments, identify underdrawings or alterations, and study the degradation of materials. This provides a deeper understanding of the original techniques used by the artists and the changes that the objects have undergone over time.
Ultraviolet (UV) imaging: is utilized to highlight the fluorescent properties and surface details of objects. This technique reveals hidden markings, retouching, and other modifications that are not visible under standard lighting conditions, offering insights into previous restoration efforts and the object’s history.
Microscopic analysis: employing optical and electron microscopy allows for the detailed examination of minute features, such as pigments, fibres, and inclusions. Microscopic analysis is crucial in the study of material structures and degradation processes at a microscale level.
Source: «La microscopía en el estudio del biodeterioro y la conservación del patrimonio histórico y cultural». Ana M. García https://oa.upm.es/20369/
Spectroscopic techniques: methods like Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray spectroscopy provide detailed information about the molecular and elemental makeup of cultural heritage objects. These techniques are essential for identifying pigments, analysing organic materials, and detecting changes related to aging and degradation.
Chemical analysis techniques: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) are used to identify and characterize organic compounds present on cultural heritage objects. These techniques allow understanding the material composition and the degradation processes, definitely aiding in developing appropriate conservation strategies.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques: computed tomography (CT) scanning, THz imaging, and ultrasound, are crucial for investigating the internal structure and condition of cultural heritage objects without causing any damage. These techniques reveal hidden features, assess structural integrity, and identify potential defects.
Although X-ray imaging can penetrate deeper and through denser materials, and also generally provides higher resolution images than THz imaging, this last is particularly safe for organic materials as it does not involve ionizing radiation (unlike X-rays, which require strict safety protocols to prevent damage to sensitive historical objects). THz imaging provides excellent material contrast for organic and composite materials, leading to a growing demand due to its effectiveness in non-destructive testing.
THz imaging is scarcely widespread throughout the EU but it is primarily found in technologically advanced research institutions, major museums, and specialized conservation labs. CARTIF is fortunate to have a dual-source THz system (100 GHz and 280 GHz) making it the proper partner in supporting museums and any kind of cultural institutions in art conservation and materials science.
THz imaging by CARTIF to provide information about the composition and layering of a parchment: real gold-leaf is clearly differentiated from other materials, such as adhesives, pigments, or underlying substrates.
Additional multimodal analysis methods should be considered to include a temporal dimension, keeping track of the evolution of features and phenomena over time. It implies the integration of data acquisitions from different visible /non-visible technologies into complex data structures that provide new analysis opportunities for scientists, conservators and curators. This requires advanced data processing and visualization tools that act as virtual environments for precise exploration, allowing to fully explore the always complex cultural heritage objects.
Collaborative platforms are essential for sharing and integrating digitized visible and non-visible data in this context, facilitating global cooperation among researchers, conservators and curators and also enhancing the collective understanding and preservation of cultural heritage.
The world is moving towards a future without fossil fuels, and this transformation is already underway. Fossil fuels, which have been the main source of energy for more than a century, are in decline for reasons of both environmental sustainability and limited availability1.
The PNIEC (National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030) stipulates that by 2030, 42% of the final energy consumed must come from renewable sources. To reach this objective, 27% of this final energy must be electricity, mostly generated from renewable sources (with a goal of 74%). This will involve the installation of more than 55GW of additional renewable generation capacity. This increase in the share of renewables in our energy mix raises new technical issues, as renewables, by their nature, are intermittent and less predictable compared to traditional energy sources. This can lead to inestabilities in the electricity grid, manifesting themselves as congestion and voltage variations.
On the demand side, the energy transition will also require an increase in the electrification of energy consumption, especially in the transport and air conditioning sectors, as well as in some industrial demands.
For the electric system, this will result in an increase in electricity demand and a transition from a traditional, flexible and highly predictable centralised generation system, with passive consumers and distribution networks, to predominantly renewable, decentralised and intermittent generation system, with managable demand resources and an increasing need for flexibility to ensure efficient levels of quality and safety..
The flexibility of a power system is defined by its ability to adapt to imbalances between generated and consumed power. Failure to meet this condition can lead to system and, therefore, on the supply. Till today, the flexibility of our system has being mainly proportionated by fossil generation plants, that equilibrates the generation of existent demand, maintaining a controlled growth of the electric demand. However, at the energy transition context, this change for several reasons:
The flexibility of a power system is defined by its ability to adapt to imbalances between generated and consumed power
The main renewable generation sources (solar and wind) do not have the capacity to “keep up” with demand.
When the transmission capacity of power lines is exceeded by demand, congestion arises, leading to overloads and supply failures.
When the quantity of power generated doesn´t match the real-time demand, voltage variations occur, affecting the quality of the power supply and potentially damaging equipment and appliances connected to the grid.
The electrification process entails a significant increase in consumption on transmission and distribution lines, which must be adapted to this increase in demand, especially during consumption peaks. Adapting these infrastructures exclusively through the repowering of lines or the installation of additional lines would have a very high material and economi cost.
The current model of renewable energy integration is associated with more decentralised generation, wich means that flexibility suppliers will also be increasingly distributed across distribution networks.
Although electricity storage offers high system flexibility, its high cost, especially in pre-metered systems, makes it necessary to consider additional sources of demand flexibility.
For all of these reasons, it is considered critical to favour and promote demand flexibility. This can be done implicitly, through incentives for users to change their consumption habits, for example, price signals, and also explicitly, where the activation of flexibility is direct and with a shorter-term response. An example of this second case is balancing services.
On the other hand, grid instability, resulting from the high share of renewables in a decentralised scheme, can be addressed through participation in local flexibility markets, which allow consumers and small generators to offer consumption and generation adjustment services, helping to stabilise the grid.
In the ENFLATE project, CARTIF is developing a flexibility management tool that helps the network operator to manage distribution networks by simulating scenarios representing participation in local flexibility markets. In is also possible to simulate the provision of balancing services for the transmission grid operator. These services are studied on the electricity netowrk of Láchar (Granada), operated by the partner CUERVA.
In Spain there is still no regulatory framework for local flexibility markets, so the European framework is used. The minimum size of flexibility offered in the local flexibility markets considered in the ENFLATE project is of 0.1MWh and the trading period is one hour. The two products offered are: surge management and congestion management.
Balancing services are offered in the balancing markets. There are three possible services: primary regulation, secondary regulation and tertiary regulation. In ENFLATE we simulate the last one, also known as manual actuation reserve for frequency. It allows offering 1MW to be bid and the trading period is from 15 minutes to two hours.
ADAION is another partner providing digitisation services on the demonstrator. Its cloud-based platform uses artificial intelligence to simulate and know the capacity of the network at all times. It provides the necessary inputs to the algorithm developed by CARTIF, so that participation in both markets can be simulated. Renewable generation, flexible demand and electric storage.
Thanks to projects such as ENFLATE, we can study the scope and benefits of using demand flexibility in real demonstrators such as the Láchar grid, simulating flexibility and balancing market conditions. In this way, we prepare for the challenges of the energy transition. At national level, the current regulatory framework for demand-side flexibility is underdeveloped and scatteres in various regulations, which have gradually been modified with the aim of transposing the European Directives. While they are being consolidated, we preparing for change with projects financed by the European Commission, as in the case of ENFLATE2.
